What Does the Soundscape of Green Woodwork Afford for Self-regulation?

This essay is written as part of an MA in PSTE at Ruskin Mill Centre For Practice & Huddersfield University

“There is music in the work and shavings dance from a well-honed blade.” (Turley, 2019, p.129)

(Spectrogram Image – Audio from Axing – Figure B2)

 (Waveform Image – Audio from Ash Tree Being Fell – Figure A2)

Click to Listen to the Soundscape

Introduction

The Ruskin Mill Trust’s (RMT) craft curricula is a foundational pillar of the Practical Skills Therapeutic Education (PSTE) approach, identified as Field Two: Practical Skills within RMT’s seven fields of practice. Through crafts, we transform materials from the mineral, plant, and animal kingdoms to create tools, clothing, and “socially meaningful items” (Gordon, 2019, p. 43). Like a language, each craft has its own dialect shaped by place, reflecting the genius loci. Adamson (2013, as cited in Blundel, 2019) writes, “Craft’s relationship to time is complex… craft can be a powerful mediator between the present and the past, and therefore between the individual and the collective.”

Post-industrialisation, traditional crafts have been devalued and overlooked, seen as ‘low-skilled’ and ‘time-consuming’ within pedagogical contexts (Graves, 2019, p. 44; Gordon, 2024, p. 42). The Cartesian mind-body divide has conditioned us to view the body as separate from the mind, yet we are “not just a brain with a body, but a body with a brain” (Portal, 2022, as cited in Huberman, 2022). John Ruskin valued crafts for integrating manual and mental labor, both hands and mind (Friedland, 2003, p. 206). Craft practitioners become embodied, and their tools become an extension of themselves. Movements are refined through the sensorimotor system (Marchand, 2008, p. 257), as the hand acts upon the material to manufacture  objects with embodied skill and experience.

Rudolf Steiner believed that the forces of the hand, heart, and head should be balanced (Steiner, 1996b, p. 8), and that a a holistic educational curriculum would integrate all three. By engaging in crafts, students “[transform] their relationships with themselves, the master craftsperson they are working with, and the people who will benefit from the item they create” (Gordon & Briggs, 2022, p. 61)

At RMT sites, neurodivergent students engage in dialogue with ancient crafts through workshops across the landscape, not classrooms. Participating in crafts within a holistic curriculum allows them to revisit developmental milestones, fostering physical, emotional, and cognitive growth, while promoting self-generated conscious action (Gordon & Cox, 2024, pp. 46–47).

Making crafted items empowers students to demonstrate their potential through the tangible results of their work. In the valley where I work, students often proudly display their handcrafted items. For many, this is a manifestation of potential, especially for those who have struggled with a fixed mindset due to past experiences. Craft becomes an expression of self through colours, materials, hand movements, and design choices, which is crucial for non-verbal students as a communication tool (Sigman, 2023, pp. 24–25; Ryan et al., 2024).

Neurodivergent students can develop concentration over time through craft (Symons et al., 2011, as cited in Leenerts, Evetts, & Miller, 2016). This development is driven by the clear endpoint of a crafted item, the process of skill-building, and the sensory engagement that craftwork offers—an experience neurodivergent individuals often seek. Occupational therapists (OTs) use craftwork as a tool to improve fine motor skills, cognitive abilities, sensory processing, and emotional regulation, aligning with craftwork’s benefits (Friedland, 2003, p. 2011). 

Each craft offers a unique sensory experience through materials, the environment, and tools. Steiner identified twelve human senses, as shown in Figure N. These senses develop in seven-year phases: foundational senses (life, movement, balance, touch) up to age seven, middle senses (warmth, sight, taste, smell) until age fourteen, and higher senses (hearing, language, thought, sense of ego) continuing until age twenty-one (Warland, 2023; Steiner, 1916). Craftwork engages these senses, supporting students in reintegrating sensory experiences. Steiner (1996) emphasized that “the twelve senses separate things into their basic elements, and the human being must be able to put them back together again… It’s immensely important that we educate children and develop each of the senses in balance” (p. 156). Craft work tutors can use the framework, to take students on a developmental journey through the senses (Gordon & Cox, 2023, p. 154). 

When craftwork is compared to the smartphone and screen addiction that psychologist Jonathan Haidt describes as ‘the great rewiring of childhood’ (Haidt, 2024), we see that holding a phone engages only two or three senses, whereas craftwork engages many more. This helps neurodivergent individuals, who are more prone to screen addiction, restore balance and reimagine their potential, becoming active participants in society. Healthy development relies on consistent sensory engagement; in the case of hearing, ‘neurological pathways associated with auditory processing need to be stimulated efficiently and consistently for healthy growth and development’ (Flagg-Williams, Rubin, & Aquino-Russell, 2011, p. 95).

During the two weeks of making a stool, the sense of hearing and the evolving soundscape became the most striking of the twelve senses, leading me to inquire: What does the soundscape of green woodwork afford for self-regulation?

Field Two in Relation to the Other Fields of Practice

The seven fields of practice, support and enhance one another, within each field you will find aspects of all the fields. Here, I explore how Practical Skills relates to the other fields of practice. 

Field Two Compared with the The Cart Shed, Herefordshire

In this analysis, I will compare the green woodwork sessions at The Cart Shed with the green woodwork curriculum at Ruskin Mill Trust, focusing on self-regulation, self-management, sound, and the genius loci of craft workshops—key themes that emerged during the two-week stool-making process. Aware of my positionality as a tutor at Ruskin Mill, I aim to critically compare both providers through these themes, while considering how my role shapes this perspective.

The Cart Shed in North Herefordshire provides therapeutic woodland sessions for children, young people, adults, neurodivergent individuals, and veterans. Each session is supported by skilled tutors, occupational therapists, and mental health practitioners. The founder states, “The Cart Shed’s philosophy centres upon the marriage of occupational therapy and the natural environment, in particular, [through] the use of crafts such as woodworking and willow weaving” (Eastaugh, as cited in Barnett, 2020). Both Ruskin Mill and The Cart Shed incorporate traditional woodworking tools, such as the pole lathe and saw horse, as well as situating their workshops in and sourcing their materials from their immediate environment. Interestingly, the logos of both provisions share a similar gesture.

Genius Loci & Sound

Both providers emphasise the role of place in craft. The Cart Shed’s woodland shelters create a sense of safety while allowing for natural soundscapes, including birdsong and rhythmic tool use, which contribute to a calming environment (Graeme’s Story, 2023). At Ruskin Mill, sound is also integral to the learning process. The predictable rhythms of tool use aid sensory integration and self-regulation, aligning with Steiner’s view that sensory experiences shape development (Gordon & Cox, 2024, p. 154).

Self-regulation and self-management  

Participants at The Cart Shed highlight the therapeutic impact of craft, describing it as more beneficial than medication for issues like low self-esteem (Tammy, as cited in Barnett, 2020). Ruskin Mill similarly fosters self-regulation but within a structured curriculum. As Gordon and Cox (2024) note, “the effort involved in making craft items brings the students to a higher level of awareness in relation to other people and to the material they are working with” (p. 55). Unlike The Cart Shed’s focus on individual therapy, Ruskin Mill emphasises long-term personal development within a social learning environment.

The Inquiry 

We had two weeks to craft a three-legged research stool, starting from felling a tree and culminating in the finished piece. Each leg was refined using a different tool: the axe, shaving horse, and lathe. Each tool required a unique posture, rhythm, and approach, creating a wide range of sounds, and ultimately resulting in three distinct legs, each reflecting the tools, and the character of the wood. This was my first encounter with green woodwork, apart from once carving a spoon, allowing me to approach the craft as a beginner involved at every step of the process, from felling the tree to crafting the stool.

We met in the woods, about a hundred feet below the field that was the subject of our Genius Loci exploration in Module One, which added meaningful context to the space. On entering the woods, we passed a massive ash tree that had succumbed to a storm a week earlier. It lay horizontally, seemingly ready to be crafted into 25 stools. However, we continued further into the woods and arrived at a small clearing where an ash and elder tree, marked with an orange X, stood ready to be felled. These trees would expand the clearing to allow more light into the woods. Axes were being rhythmically sharpened in the background as we were introduced to the context of Park Wood.

As a researcher, I positioned myself as a participant-observer (Cohen, Manion, & Morrison, 2018, pp. 296–299), fully engaging in the activities while also documenting my experiences for analysis. Data collection methods included:

• Extensive audio recordings of soundscapes, tools, and material 
• Photographs documenting each stage of the process.
• Written observation and reflections of sense impressions following immersion in the activity 

The collected data was analysed through thematic reflection (Braun & Clarke, 2013), as I gathered my findings, interpreted them, and evaluated them alongside relevant research. With a focus on the soundscapes of the workshop, the rhythm of the tools, and their potential therapeutic affordances for self-regulation for neurodivergent individuals. 

Findings

As I participated in and observed the process of felling and processing trees, I was captivated by the soundscape. In my experience as a gardener, tool sounds are often muffled by soil, making auditory feedback subtle. There is growing interest in soundscape design for gardens, rooted in Japanese-style gardens, which focus on reducing unwanted noise and introducing desired sounds to create a calming environment (Cerwén, 2020) but sounds produced through gardening are muted. In contrast, the woodlands and workshop offered a rich, rhythmic, and sometimes overwhelming soundscape as tools met the resonant wood. Once the trees were felled, new activities unfolded, introducing tools such as two-person saws, axes of various sizes, and bow saws. Together, they created a symphony of sounds that initially moved me to investigate the auditory landscape of the craft.

Two tutors worked synchronously, axing a log together in a rhythm akin to a heartbeat, echoing through the woods and creating a meditative atmosphere. Later analysis of the sound revealed a rhythm of 72 beats per minute. This rhythm helped regulate my breathing and brought me into the moment. The alignment between the tool rhythms and my breath mirrored the concept of entrainment, where external rhythms support internal self-regulation. 

Figure B1 – Rhythmic Axing 

The transition from working outdoors in the woods during the first week to working in the Wool Barn in the second week introduced new challenges. Indoors, the soundscape became chaotic. The term “noise” originates from the Latin word “nausea,” and the indoor environment embodied this meaning. High-frequency sounds were masked, instructions became harder to follow, and social interactions were hindered by the cacophony. An individual with autism may find may find this soundscape overwhelming (Danesh et al., 2021; Williams et al., 2021; Higashida, 2014, p. 53). 

Figure H1 – Walking into the Wool Barm

The soundscape in the woods was a harmonious blend of tools rhythmic sawing and axing, amidst bird song, and the sound of the wind through the leaves. For one day, we were based outside next to the Field Centre, when everyone was using the side axe, rhythmic chipping and light conversation was in the soundscape. As the stool progressed, as the group started using a wider range of tools at the same time, and as our environment became more constricted and enclosed, soon the soundscape was acoustically harsh filled with competing sounds. This contrast highlighted the importance of soundscapes in shaping my experiences and interactions. 

Each tool produced distinct sounds and demanded different movements:

Furthermore, the soundscape changed over the two weeks:

Evaluation

Naoki Higashida, an autistic author, offers a profound glimpse into the sensory world of autistic individuals, particularly their experiences with sound:

“There are certain noises you don’t notice, but that really get to us… It’s more to do with a fear that if we keep listening, we’ll lose all sense of where we are… At times like these, it feels as if the ground is shaking, and the landscape around us starts coming to get us, and it’s absolutely terrifying.” (Higashida, 2014, p. 53)

Higashida’s description reveals how everyday noises, which might go unnoticed by neurotypical individuals, can evoke an overwhelming sense of fear or disconnection in autistic individuals. This reaction goes beyond mere annoyance; it is tied to a deeper sensory processing experience where sound threatens one’s orientation and sense of safety. For many, protective actions like cupping their ears help re-establish a connection to their surroundings (Elwin, Ek, Schröder, & Kjellin, 2012).

These insights align with research on decreased sound tolerance (DST), affecting 50% to 70% of autistic individuals at some point in their lives (Williams, He, Cascio, & Woynaroski, 2021). DST reflects a heightened sensitivity to sound, where certain auditory stimuli become distressing or disorienting, impacting participation in education, work, and community life. However, it is important to recognize that sensory experiences vary widely within the autistic spectrum. While some individuals may avoid overwhelming noises, others may seek particular sounds or become deeply focused on intricate auditory details (Elwin et al., 2012).

Understanding these diverse sensory needs is critical in environments like the green woodwork shelters at Ruskin Mill College. These open-air spaces allow sound to naturally dissipate, creating a more accommodating auditory environment. For some individuals, the rhythmic, predictable sounds of tools like axes and saws might be challenging within a complex soundscape, while for others, these same sounds can have a grounding and calming effect. The rhythmic nature of these sounds can help individuals reconnect with their bodies and surroundings, offering a therapeutic sensory experience.

Green woodwork workshops engage multiple sensory experiences (Maapalo & Østern, 2018), including tactile, proprioceptive, and auditory stimuli. As well as being aware of the rhythms of others, when working with the two-person saw. The diverse textures and physical properties of green wood offer tactile input, helping individuals develop body awareness and refine their sense of touch (Gordon & Cox, 2024, pp. 101–103). The act of handling, carving, or shaping wood provides valuable proprioceptive feedback, promoting motor coordination and spatial awareness. Additionally, the sounds produced when working with green wood—whether tapping, scraping, or rubbing—stimulate auditory processing, encouraging attention to varying pitches and rhythms. This multi-sensory engagement supports overall sensory integration, fostering better self-regulation, emotional processing, and sensory processing skills.  

Figure J – Two Person Saw

Ayres’ theory of sensory integration proposes that sensory systems do not develop independently, but work together to influence learning and behaviour (Roley, Mailloux, Miller Kuhaneck, & Glennon, 2007). In green woodworking, the sounds produced—such as the rhythmic tapping of a mallet or the scraping of tools on wood—become a crucial sensory input.

The majority of individuals with autism experience symptoms of delayed sensory integration, including auditory processing difficulties, when exposed to sounds perceived as unpleasant. Marco et al. (2011) notes that “individuals will learn to avoid auditory input, thus curtailing the learning that comes from listening to the people and the world around them.” If a student encounters an unpleasant soundscape in green woodworking, they may be reluctant to return.

In 1972, Ayres identified three key components of impaired sensory integration: registration, modulation, and motivation (Kilroy, Aziz-Zadeh, & Cermak, 2019). This framework seems to align, in part, with Rudolf Steiner’s Thinking, Feeling & Willing (Steiner, 1996). Registration refers to the detection and recognition of sensory input; for example, a student might not hear when they are being spoken to. Modulation involves the brain’s regulation of neural activity in response to sensory input, which can lead to over- or under-responsiveness to auditory or tactile feedback. Lastly, motivation involves the drive to respond to sensory input. Ayres observed that children with ASD often lack the motivation to engage in purposeful activities despite having the motor ability to do so. This is reflected in Ayres’ description of what she called “the ‘I want to do it’ function of the brain” (quoted in Kilroy, Aziz-Zadeh, & Cermak, 2019).

Entrainment, widely used in neurological music therapy (NMT), involves aligning internal rhythms with external auditory stimuli, improving movement coordination, attention, and emotional regulation (Hasan & Thaut, 1999 ; Thaut, 2015, Sigman, 2023, p. 45). In green woodworking, the sounds generated by tools provide immediate feedback, allowing practitioners to adjust their movements and achieve rhythmic efficiency. Coordinated stimuli (audio and body movement) synchronize perception and response (Cuppone, Cappagli, & Gori, 2018). “In every act of hearing, the entire body resonates or ‘vibrates’ in sympathy” (Rohen, 2007, p. 265).

Crafting a green woodwork stool in a well-considered soundscape provides sensory integration and auditory entrainment, grounded in a predictable rhythm and tempo that the tools of the craft invite. As Turley writes, ‘Rhythmic work coordinates us into our own body and breath. As the logging saw bites and the axe rings out, there is music in the work, and shavings dance from a well-honed blade’ (Turley, 2019, p. 129). Research from Vanderbilt University has shown that autistic individuals may experience sights and sounds at different times (Boerner, 2014; Wallace, 2014), with sensory information remaining unbound. In contrast, for a neurotypical individual, sights and sounds are integrated—lips moving and words spoken are perceived as one phenomenon. Mark Wallace, Ph.D., explains that ‘the neuroplasticity of the brain allows for intervention to help autistic individuals combine what they see with what they hear’ (Wallace, as cited in Vanderbilt University Medical Center, 2014). The sensory experience of greenwood work over an extended period of time may provide an appropriate intervention to help autistic individuals bind sight and sound together. 

Greenwood work takes the learner back to the pre-industrial soundscape, before the Industrial Revolution introduced new sounds and drowned out the natural world with the “continuous drone” of machinery that surrounds us (Schafer, 1977, p. 78). Today, we are overwhelmed by a barrage of sounds, from the smartphones we carry to the social media we consume. Schafer (1977) describes this phenomenon as the proliferation of “devices for packaging sounds and transmitting them schizophonically across time and space to live amplified or multiplied existences. Today the world suffers from an overpopulation of sounds; there is so much acoustic information that little of it can emerge with clarity” (p. 71).

I wonder whether, when writing in 1977, Schafer could have foreseen the overexposure to mass-produced sounds that are now available to us at every moment—sounds designed to be addictive, which affects a significant proportion of the autistic population, who are particularly vulnerable to screen addictions (Yuan et al., 2024, Sigman, 2023, pp. 48-50, Sigman, 2017). 

Craft work, and specifically green woodwork, may offer a more embodied auditory experience. It allows students to experience sounds tied to real time and real place—rare experiences in a world dominated by the hum of cars, people, machinery, and reproduced sounds. This creates a soundscape that embodies genius loci, fostering a deep sense of connection to place, and to one’s own body that allows for self-regulation.

Reflections

When making the stool, I was deeply affected by the sounds I created as my tools interacted with the wood. Working with fresh wood, softened the sound, providing a pleasing auditory texture. When considering the 12 senses, I would regard myself as being particularly attuned to the foundational senses of balance, touch, and movement. I have great admiration for professional athletes who excel in these senses, often with mastery of all three (Gordon & Cox, 2024, pg.44)

On reflection, I was surprised to have been most struck by the qualities of sound, which I was unable to bracket during my inquiry. It felt to me like it was at the heart of the craft, and I wasn’t sure if we were making music or making a stool. The stool appears to me as a piece of music, each leg corresponding to a different instrument in the orchestra, and I felt disappointed when I walked into the workshop to hear all the pole lathes, saw horsing, planing, and sawing happening out of sync, with no consideration for the droning soundscape. At times I became overwhelmed, and I wanted to be alone outside to chip away at my stool leg with the side axe, at my own rhythm, away from the chaos. This sensitivity to sound was very unusual for me. I felt like it began with the felling of the tree when the tree made its last groan. This experience has made me more conscious of the soundscape in my own workshop and how it may deeply affect students on the autism spectrum, creating a barrier to their learning (Danesh et al., 2021; Williams et al., 2021; Shield & Dockrell, 2003). How can I design my workshop to absorb sound? What tone should I use when speaking to students? Should I use the scythes instead of the strimmer? Are the instructions that I give audible to students with competing high-frequency sounds? (Flagg-Williams, Rubin, &  Aquino-Russell, 2011, p. 89)

It also makes me consider how I can use sound therapeutically. How can I incorporate rhythm into horticulture sessions through sound? There is an abundance of sounds from nature in the valley where I work—birds, streams, flowforms, wind in the leaves, and insects. How can I bring these sounds to the forefront in sessions? And, as a beekeeper, how can I bring the hum of the hive to students for them to experience? These sounds seem more important then ever, when mass-produced sounds dominate the soundscape of many individuals and students. The natural soundscape has a self-regulatory function, which is restorative (Medvedev, Shepherd, & Hautus, 2015; Zhu, Yuan, Pan, Wang, Xiu, & Liu, 2024)

My colleagues and I often jokingly refer to our recently built workshop in the Valley as the mini wool barn. Although built on a much smaller scale, it incorporates similar materials, which increase reverberation. It’s a space where students learn and spend their tea breaks, and instructions are often given here before heading out into the garden. I am considering commissioning a beautiful tapestry woven by students from the college’s weaving workshop, using wool from the sheep on the farm. This tapestry could serve both as an ‘item of service’ to help absorb sound waves and as an aesthetically pleasing addition to the space. It would reduce noise and the reverberation from the hard surfaces, making verbal instructions clearer and easier for individuals with autism to process (Flagg-Williams, Rubin, & Aquino-Russell, 2011, p. 91).

Conclusion

The sounds in green woodwork are produced at the meeting point of the maker’s will, tools, and material, providing auditory feedback that helps a student regulate their movements and offers opportunities for self-regulation. One student described the experience: “It’s like a rhythm… I’m focusing on the rhythm. I’m moving, so it’s easier to focus and just get in that rhythm because I can hear it. I can tell when I’m going off because when you do it right, it’s like a nice ‘shh shh shh.’ I like the sound and the feel… even if I drift off, I can tell if I’m not doing something right just by the sound” (Student reflection, as quoted in Briggs, 2024).

The soundscape of the workshop heavily influences the therapeutic potential of the craft. When making my stool legs, I needed to hear the rhythm of my work to self-monitor and adjust my body position and movements. At times, however, I encountered resistance due to the noise of a busy workshop. Tutors can take several steps to ensure the sounds promote resilience rather than overwhelm or stress students. For instance, they could provide spaces within the workshop where students can find respite from noise. A range of tools could also be offered, allowing students to work with sound levels they find manageable. 

The literature on the therapeutic potential of sound in craft is sparse. However, through researching the effects of sound on autistic individuals (Danesh et al., 2021; Williams et al., 2021), reflecting on my own experience of making the stool, and analysing my sound recordings, I believe there is a compelling case for how green woodwork provides an auditory therapeutic and self-regulating value—one that is often overlooked by practitioners and masters of the craft, whose senses are deeply embedded in their practice. The opportunity for students to create rhythmic sounds while producing an item of service is profound.

In a visually dominated culture (Schafer, 2011, pp. 160–161), it is important to also place an emphasis on sound, which has a significant impact on many autistic individuals—a growing demographic. This highlights the increasing relevance of Practical Skills Therapeutic Education, where sensory considerations play a crucial role in supporting students’ learning and well-being.

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